Evolution of alternative methodologies of scorpion antivenoms production.

Scorpionism represents a serious public health problem resulting in the death of children and debilitated individuals. Scorpion sting treatment employs various strategies including the use of specific medicines such as antiserum, especially for patients with severe symptoms. In 1909 Charles Todd described the production of an antiserum against the venom of the scorpion Buthus quinquestriatus. Based on Todd's work, researchers worldwide began producing antiserum using the same approach i.e., immunization of horses with crude venom as antigen. Despite achieving satisfactory results using this approach, researchers in this field have developed alternative approaches for the production of scorpion antivenom serum. In this review, we describe the work published by experts in toxinology to the development of scorpion venom antiserum. Methods and results describing the use of specific antigens, detoxified venom or toxins, purified toxins and or venom fractions, native toxoids, recombinant toxins, synthetic peptides, monoclonal and recombinant antibodies, and alternative animal models are presented.

Molecular and functional characterization of metalloserrulases, new metalloproteases from the Tityus serrulatus venom gland.

Tityus serrulatus is a Brazilian scorpion species with great medical significance. While the effects of neurotoxins have been extensively studied, little is known about the proteases expressed in the venom gland of this arthropod. In this study, clones from a T. serrulatus (Ts) venom gland cDNA library were selected according to homology to proteases. The sequences were aligned in the database and classified by homology. Similarity and identity analyses of the sequences were carried out, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed with the sequences of other proteases. These cDNA sequences correspond to ten different metalloproteases, named metalloserrulases (TsMS). TsMS 1-9 belong to the metzincin family, which has three domains: signal peptide, propeptide, and metalloprotease domain; while TsMS 10 belongs to the gluzincin family. The proteolytic activity of the venom was inferred from the cleavage of fibrinogen, and the residues recognized by the proteases were determined by cleavage of a tripeptide library using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay. The Ts venom showed proteolytic activity on fibrinogen and preferential cleavage close to the basic residues K and R. Its activity could be inhibited by EDTA, indicating that the venom from this scorpion predominantly consists of metalloproteases.